Methods of positioning and/or orienting nanostructures

ABSTRACT

Methods of positioning and orienting nanostructures, and particularly nanowires, on surfaces for subsequent use or integration. The methods utilize mask based processes alone or in combination with flow based alignment of the nanostructures to provide oriented and positioned nanostructures on surfaces. Also provided are populations of positioned and/or oriented nanostructures, devices that include populations of positioned and/or oriented nanostructures, systems for positioning and/or orienting nanostructures, and related devices, systems and methods.

CROSS REFERENCE TO RELATED APPLICATIONS

This application is a continuation of U.S. patent application Ser. No.11/000,557, filed Dec. 1, 2004, which is a continuation of U.S. patentapplication Ser. No. 10/239,000, filed Sep. 10, 2002 and is related toand claims priority from Provisional U.S. Patent Application No.60/370,113, filed Apr. 2, 2002, each of which is hereby incorporatedherein in its entirety for all purposes.

BACKGROUND OF THE INVENTION

Nanotubes, nanocrystals, nanowires, and particularly semiconductornanowires have gained a great deal of attention for their interestingand novel properties in electrical, chemical, optical and otherapplications. Such nanomaterials have a wide variety of expected andactual uses, including use as semiconductors for nanoscale electronics,optoelectronic applications in emissive devices, e.g., nanolasers, LEDs,etc., photovoltaics, and sensor applications, e.g., as nano-ChemFETS.

While commercial applications of the molecular, physical, chemical andoptical properties of these materials have been postulated for all ofthese different types of materials, generating commercially viableproducts has not, as yet, been forthcoming. In the world of devices withintegrated nanomaterial elements, some of the difficulties in producingcommercially viable products has stemmed from the difficulty in handlingand interfacing with such small scale materials. Specifically, for themost part, these materials are produced in bulk as free standingelements that must be positioned within an operational device. Accurateand reproducible positioning of these materials has proven difficult.

Accordingly, it would be desirable to be able to provide methods ofpositioning and orienting nanowires on substrates or within integrateddevices or systems, in a reasonably practicable fashion. The presentinvention meets these and a variety of other needs.

SUMMARY OF THE INVENTION

The present invention is generally directed to methods of positioningand orienting nanostructures, and particularly nanowires on substratesfor subsequent use, integration or application. The invention alsoenvisions systems for practicing such methods, devices that includeoriented and positioned nanostructures, populations of positioned and/ororiented nanostructures, and systems that include such positioned and/ororiented nanostructures.

In one aspect, the present invention provides a method of depositingnanowires on a surface substantially in a desired orientation. Themethod generally comprises flowing a fluid containing nanowires over thesurface in a first direction, where the first direction is substantiallyparallel to a desired longitudinal orientation of the nanowires. Thenanowires in the solution are then permitted to become immobilized ontothe surface, with the longitudinal dimension of the nanowires beingsubstantially oriented in the first direction.

In a further aspect, the invention is directed to methods of positioningnanowires in one or more predetermined regions on a substrate. Themethods typically comprise providing a substrate having a first surface,overlaying the first surface with a mask, where the mask provides fluidaccess to one or more first predetermined regions on the first surface,but not to one or more second predetermined regions on the surface ofthe substrate. A fluid containing nanowires is then flowed through themask and into contact with the first predetermined regions of thesubstrate surface. The nanowires contained in the nanowire containingfluid are then permitted to immobilize in the first predeterminedregions of the surface of the substrate.

In another aspect, the invention is directed to one or more populationsof nanowires immobilized on a planar surface of a substrate, where thepopulation(s) of nanowires are substantially longitudinally oriented ina first direction parallel to the planar surface.

Similarly, the invention includes populations of nanowires immobilizedon a surface of a substrate that comprise a first set of nanowiresimmobilized in a first selected region of the surface of the substrate,and a second set of nanowires immobilized in a second selected region ofthe surface of the substrate, the second selected region being separatefrom the first selected region.

The invention is also directed to a nanowire based device that comprisesat least a first population of nanowires immobilized in at least a firstregion of a surface of a substrate, the first population of nanowiresbeing substantially longitudinally oriented in a first direction. Thedevices of the invention typically include at least first and secondelectrical contacts disposed on the first region of the surface of thesubstrate. The first and second electrical contacts are typicallyseparated from each other on the first surface of the substrate in thefirst direction by a less than an average length of the nanowires in thepopulation of nanowires.

The invention also includes a substrate comprising a plurality ofpopulations of nanowires deposited upon a first surface of saidsubstrate, wherein each of the populations of nanowires is deposited andimmobilized in a separate discrete region of the surface of thesubstrate. In preferred aspects, electrical contacts are disposed in theseparate regions such that at least one wire in the populations ofnanowires bridges and connects at least two electrical contacts.

In a further aspect, the invention is directed to a system for orientingnanowires on a surface of a substrate in accordance with the methods ofthe invention. The system typically comprises a substrate having a firstsurface, a fluid channel disposed on the first surface, and a fluiddirection system coupled to the first channel and coupled to a source offluid containing nanowires, for flowing the fluid containing nanowiresin a first direction through the first fluid channel.

The invention also includes, as one aspect, a system for positioningnanowires on a surface of a substrate. As above, the system includes thesubstrate having the first surface. A masking element is provided overthe first surface which provides fluid access to separate discreteregions of the first surface of the substrate. A source of fluid thatincludes the nanowires or other nanostructures is provided fluidiclycoupled to the fluid passages in the masking element. A fluid directionsystem is operably coupled to the fluid source and passages in themasking element to delver the fluid from the source to the passages, sothat the nanowires in the fluid can contact and thus be immobilized uponthe discrete regions of the surface of the substrate.

BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF THE FIGURES

FIG. 1 schematically illustrates a wafer based process for positioningand orienting nanowires on a substrate.

FIG. 2 schematically illustrates the integration of electrical elementswith positioned and oriented nanowires on a wafer substrate.

FIG. 3 is a schematic illustration of patterned substratefunctionalization followed by positioning and orienting of nanowires.

FIG. 4 shows a schematic illustration of bidirectional orientation ofnanowires in accordance with the processes described herein.

FIGS. 5A-5D show schematic illustrations of different fluidic channelstructures designed to achieve different deposition patterns ofnanowires on substrate surfaces.

FIG. 6 is a schematic illustration of an overall system for positioningand aligning nanowires onto substrate surfaces.

FIG. 7 is an SEM image of oriented nanowires immobilized on a substratesurface.

FIG. 8A is a postulated electrode deposition over the oriented nanowirepopulation shown in FIG. 7, and FIG. 8B shows a plot of expectedfrequency of 0, 1, 2 and 3 wire connections between electrode pairs.

FIG. 9 shows aligned nanowires connected to electrical contact pairs.

DETAILED DESCRIPTION OF THE INVENTION

The present invention is generally directed to methods of positioningand/or orienting nanowires on substrates, nanowires so positioned and/ororiented, devices produced from such oriented and/or positionednanowires, and systems used in so orienting and/or positioning suchnanowires.

As used herein, the term “nanowire” generally refers to any elongatedconductive or semiconductive material that includes at least one crosssectional dimension that is less than 500 nm, and preferably, less than100 nm, and has an aspect ratio (length:width) of greater than 10,preferably, greater than 50, and more preferably, greater than 100.Examples of such nanowires include semiconductor nanowires as describedin Published International Patent Application Nos. WO 02/17362, WO02/48701, and 01/03208, carbon nanotubes, and other elongated conductiveor semiconductive structures of like dimensions. Particularly preferrednanowires include semiconductive nanowires, that are comprised ofsemiconductor material selected from, e.g., Si, Ge, Sn, Se, Te, B,Diamond, P, B—C, B—P(BP6), B—Si, Si—C, Si—Ge, Si—Sn and Ge—Sn, SiC,BN/BP/BAs, AlN/AlP/AlAs/AlSb, GaN/GaP/GaAs/GaSb, InN/InP/InAs/InSb,BN/BP/BAs, AlN/AlP/AlAs/AlSb, GaN/GaP/GaAs/GaSb, InN/InP/InAs/InSb,ZnO/ZnS/ZnSe/ZnTe, CdS/CdSe/CdTe, HgS/HgSe/HgTe, BeS/BeSe/BeTe/MgS/MgSe,GeS, GeSe, GeTe, SnS, SnSe, SnTe, PbO, PbS, PbSe, PbTe, CuF, CuCl, CuBr,CuI, AgF, AgCl, AgBr, AgI, BeSiN², CaCN², ZnGeP2, CdSnAs2, ZnSnSb2,CuGeP3, CuSi2P3, (Cu, Ag)(Al, Ga, In, Tl, Fe)(S, Se, Te)₂, Si3N4, Ge3N4,Al₂O₃, (Al, Ga, In)₂(S, Se, Te)₃, Al2CO, and an appropriate combinationof two or more such semiconductors. In certain aspects, thesemiconductor may comprise a dopant from a group consisting of: a p-typedopant from Group III of the periodic table; an n-type dopant from GroupV of the periodic table; a p-type dopant selected from a groupconsisting of: B, Al and In; an n-type dopant selected from a groupconsisting of: P, As and Sb; a p-type dopant from Group II of theperiodic table; a p-type dopant selected from a group consisting of: Mg,Zn, Cd and Hg; a p-type dopant from Group IV of the periodic table; ap-type dopant selected from a group consisting of: C and Si; or ann-type is selected from a group consisting of: Si, Ge, Sn, S, Se and Te.

The present invention provides for the selective deposition of nanowiresin preselected regions of substrates by providing a masking layer thatmasks off certain portions of the substrate surface, while providingfluid access to those portions of the substrate surface where it isdesired to deposit nanowires. Fluid containing the nanowires is thendirected through the mask such that the nanowires contact the desiredregions of the substrate, and the nanowires are immobilized thereon. Inthe context of the invention, the substrate to which nanowires areimmobilized may comprise a uniform substrate, e.g., a wafer of solidmaterial, e.g., silicon, glass, quartz, plastic, etc. or it may compriseadditional elements, e.g., structural, compositional etc. For example,the substrate may include other circuit or structural elements that arepart of the ultimately desired device. Particular examples of suchelements include electrical circuit elements such as electrical;contacts, other wires or conductive paths, including nanowires or othernanoscale conducting elements, optical and/or optoelectrical elements,e.g., lasers, LEDs, etc., structural elements, e.g., microcantilevers,pits, wells, posts, etc.

By further controlling the direction of flow of the nanowire containingfluid through the mask, one can substantially align or orient thenanowires that immobilize to the surface of the substrate. Inparticular, nanowires that are being deposited on a surface tend to belongitudinally oriented in the direction of flow of the carrier fluid inwhich they are suspended. Accordingly, one can substantiallylongitudinally orient nanowires on a surface by flowing the carrierfluid in a direction across the surface that is parallel to the desiredlongitudinal orientation of the nanowires. By “substantiallylongitudinally oriented” is meant that the longitudinal axes of amajority of nanowires in a collection or population of nanowires areoriented within 30 degrees of a single direction. Preferably, at least80% of the nanowires in a population are so oriented, more preferably atleast 90% of the nanowires are so oriented. In certain preferredaspects, the majority of nanowires are oriented within 10 degrees of thedesired direction.

In the context of the present invention, it is generally preferred toprovide for selective positioning of nanowires on certain regions ofsubstrates while simultaneously providing for desired orientation ofthose nanowires. However, as will be readily appreciated, there may be anumber of instances in which one aspect of the invention is more desiredthan the other. For example, in certain cases, it may be desired toalign nanowires on a substrate surface with little or no regard for thepositioning of the nanowires on that surface. Similarly, there may beinstances where selected positioning of nanowires is desired with littleor no regard for the orientation of the nanowires once positioned.Although the disclosure may focus a particular discussion on one aspector the other, such discussion is generally for ease of understanding andconvenience of description. It will be appreciated that in many cases,such disclosure applies equally to all aspects of the invention.

As noted previously, selective contact between nanowires and regions ofa substrate is accomplished through a mask-based method, where a maskingelement is placed over the entire substrate surface. The mask providesfor fluidic access to the desired regions of the substrate. A mask maybe a simple stencil type mask where a solid layer that includesapertures disposed through it is placed or fabricated over the surfaceof the substrate. The apertures provide the fluid access to certainregions of the substrate surface and by directing fluid containingnanowires (or other collections of nanowires, e.g., dry powders, etc.)to the surface of the substrate, one can ensure nanowire contact, andultimately localization and immobilization to those regions. By way ofexample, nanowires may be particularly targeted for positioning orlocalization in desired areas of the substrate, e.g., areas in whichintegration with additional elements is to occur, or to keep nanowiresout of areas in which their presence could prove detrimental toancillary functions of a nanowire based device. By way of example, itmay be particularly desirable to ensure hat nanowires contact electricalcontacts or other circuit elements, while avoiding contact with otherregions of the substrate surface. By doing so, one can ensure thatefforts at depositing nanowires are focused in those regions of thesubstrate where deposition is desired, and not in other regions where itis less desirable.

In particularly preferred aspects, however, the masking element will besomewhat more complex than a simple stencil like mask. In particular, inorder to provide for both positioning and orientation of nanowires on asubstrate surface, it is generally desirable to provide for directedflow of fluid across the surface of the substrate. As such, it willgenerally be desired to provide a masking element that provides fluidicchannels across selected regions of a substrate's surface. Such maskingelements are also often referred to as manifolds. In brief, one canfabricate one or more grooves into a planar substrate to provide amanifold element. This planar element is then mated with the substratesurface upon which selective deposition of nanowires is desired. Themating of the manifold element with the substrate surface encloses thegroove on the manifold element and provides a channel which includes asone of its walls, a portion of the substrate surface. The groovetypically includes a fluid inlet port and a fluid outlet port to permitthe introduction and flow of fluid containing nanowires into and throughthe channel in the manifold element. In more preferred aspects, thesefluidic channels disposed over the substrate surface will be microscalein cross section, e.g., having a width dimension across the substratethat is less than 1 mm, preferably, less than 500 μm, and in many cases,less than 100 μm.

One of the advantages of the present invention is its ability to bereadily adapted to provide methods for larger scale production ofnanowire containing devices by providing full wafer scale nanowireorientation and/or positioning processes. In particular, a nanowirecontaining device, like most integrated circuit devices, is typicallyembodied in a small chip. Like the integrated circuit industry, it wouldbe desirable to be able to manufacture multiple devices in parallel fromindividual and larger wafers.

In accordance with the present invention, a substrate wafer is providedfrom which multiple devices are to be produced. A fluid that containsnanowires is contacted with, or in the case of flow aligned nanowires,flowed over all or one or more selected portions of the substrate in adesired direction. As noted above, for flow aligned nanowires, thedirection of flow will typically dictate the substantial longitudinalorientation of the nanowires that become immobilized on the surface ofthe substrate.

In some cases, it is preferred to provide nanowires only on selectedregions of the surface of the substrate, e.g., to minimize extraneouswire deposition, avoid wasting wires on unused portions of thesubstrate, etc. In such cases, a masking element is provided over thesubstrate surface to ensure that nanowire containing fluid only comesinto contact with one or more selected regions on the substrate surface.By way of example, a channel block or manifold that includes one or morechannel grooves is placed against the substrate wafer and fluidcontaining the nanowires is flowed through the channels in the desireddirection to provided oriented nanowires in the selected locations onthe wafer surface.

In order to produce multiple devices from the single wafer, multipleelectrical interface components are provided on the wafer. For example,in producing multiple simple devices that includes two electricalcontacts bridged by one or more nanowires, multiple pairs of electricalcontacts can be provided on the substrate wafer, corresponding to eachdevice. Typically, each pair of such electrical contacts will beprovided close enough to each other in the desired direction, e.g., thedirection of longitudinal orientation of the nanowires, such that ananowire could bridge the space between the electrical contacts.Multiple pairs of electrical contacts are provided at multiple differentpositions on the wafer surface. The wafer containing multiple nanowiredevices, e.g., one or more nanowires bridging a pair of electrodes, arethen segmented into multiple separate devices.

FIG. 1 illustrates a wafer based process for producing nanowire baseddevices in which nanowires are oriented, positioned and integrated withelectrical contacts for subsequent application. As shown, a substratewafer 100 is provided from which multiple nanowire based devices are tobe fabricated. The wafer 100 may include surface functionalization,e.g., as described herein. A masking element, such as manifold 102 isoverlaid on the relevant surface of the wafer 100. The manifold includesa plurality of fluid accesses, e.g., fluid channels 104-118, to thesurface of the substrate. In particular, as shown, channels 104-118 aresealed on one side by the surface of the wafer 100, as described above.These channels are coupled to fluid ports 120 and 122 as the fluid inletand outlet ports, respectively.

The manifold or masking element 102 may take on a variety of formsand/or be fabricated from a variety of materials. By way of example, themanifold may be fabricated from rigid substrates, e.g., glass, quartz,silicon, or other silica based materials. Such materials provide ease ofmanufacturing, in that the elements of the manifold, e.g., the fluidicchannels, can be fabricated by processes that are well known in themicrofluidics, and microfabrication industries, e.g., photolithographyand wet chemical etching. Similarly, polymeric materials may be used andare readily manufactured using micromolding techniques, e.g., injectionmolding, microembossing, etc. In some preferred cases, flexiblematerials are desirable as they provide enhanced contact between themanifold element and substrate surfaces that may not be perfectly flat.Examples of such materials include, e.g., polydimethylsiloxane (PDMS)and the like. Such materials are readily produced by micromoldingtechniques, where molds are fabricated in accordance with well knownmicrofabrication techniques, e.g., photolithography and nickelelectroforming of a master, followed by in situ polymerization of thePDMS manifold. Methods of fabricating such manifolds from a largevariety of different materials are described in detail in themicrofluidic patent literature, e.g., U.S. Pat. No., 6,180,239 toWhitesides et al, and U.S. Pat. No. 5,500,071 to Swedberg et al., andU.S. Pat. No. 6,123,798 to Ghandi et al., the full disclosure of each ofwhich are hereby incorporated herein by reference in their entirety forall purposes.

A fluid that contains nanowires is flowed into fluid inlet port 120 andthrough channels 104-118, and out of fluid port 122. During flow of thefluid, nanowires immobilize to the regions of the wafer surface that areincluded in the channels 104-118. Removal of the manifold then yieldsimmobilized nanowire populations 124-138 in selected regions thatcorrespond to the regions accessed by the fluid. Further, because thefluid was flowed in a selected direction, e.g., through the channelsfrom the inlet port to the outlet port, the nanowires that areimmobilized on the wafer surface in these selected regions aresubstantially longitudinally oriented in the direction of fluid flow, asshown by expanded view 140 which shows oriented individual wires 142.

In alternate aspects, one may employ more complex fluidic channels orfluid control systems in or attached to the manifold element to moreacutely control where and how nanowires immobilize on the surface of thesubstrate during the deposition process. In particular, one can takeadvantage of fluid mechanics within the manifold channels in order tomore precisely direct deposition of nanowires against a substratesurface.

FIG. 5 provides examples of channel geometries or control systems thatcan be used to provide for wire deposition in desired locations. By wayof example, FIG. 5A shows a cross section of a fluidic channel 500,viewed from above where the fluid channels widen at the region 502 ofdesired deposition. By widening the channels, fluid velocity throughthat channel portion is slowed (the residence time of wires in thisregion is increased) which enhances the likelihood that wires willdeposit against the substrate in these regions, e.g., shown as thedashed oval 504. Alternatively, as shown in FIG. 5B, channel regions 510that have regions with shallower depths 512, e.g., shorter diffusiondistances required to be traversed to reach the substrate surface, maybe provided. By providing a shorter diffusion distance between the fluidand the substrate surface region of interest, e.g., region 514, again,one may enhance the rate at which wires contact and are deposited on thedesired surface regions.

In other aspects, flow irregularities may be provided by the channelgeometry which yield aggregation or deposition of particulates, e.g.,nanowires in desired regions. By way of example, and as shown in FIG.5C, one may provide channels 520 that include coves 522 in the channelgeometry, or corners 524 at which will function as deposition zones 526as a result of eddies or other recirculating flows that containnanowires in these regions for extended times. Streamlines are indicatedby the dashed arrows.

In a further aspect, one may employ other means for preferentiallydepositing wires in certain locations. One such example involvesproducing standing wave patterns in the fluid containing the nanowiresover the surface of the substrate. Such standing waves can be used tocreate regular periodic patterns of nanowires deposited on the substratesurface. FIG. 5D schematically illustrates a fluid channel 530 and wavegenerator 532, as well as an exemplary deposition pattern for thenanowires on the surface of the substrate. As shown, a series ofstanding rolls 534 is set up within a fluid containing channel thatyields periodic deposition of nanowires, e.g., in zones 536. Inaddition, interfering waves could be set up in other directions, e.g.,orthogonal to the first standing wave, to provide more preciselocalization of deposited wires. Wave generators that are particularlyuseful in accordance with this aspect of the invention includepiezoelectric elements that provide high frequency vibrations to thefluid within the channel.

Positioned and oriented nanowires are far more amenable to integrationwith electrical elements in a controlled, high yield fashion. Inparticular, by providing populations of positioned and orientednanowires, e.g., populations 124-138, one can more precisely selectlocations for electrical contacts, in order to maximize the likelihoodof functional connection between nanowires and electrical contacts orother elements. By way of example, if one has a population of nanowiresthat are randomly dispersed within a relatively small area, but areoriented to be pointing substantially in one direction, one can provideelectrical contacts within that small area and spaced apart in thedirection of orientation by a distance that will likely be spanned by atleast one nanowire. Such a distance can be selected to be less than theaverage size of the nanowires in the population of nanowires. To ensuregreater likelihood of spanning the contacts, one could place them at adistance that is less than 90% of the average length, less than 80% ofthe average length, less than 70% of the average length, and in somecases, less than 50% of the average length of the nanowires in thepopulation. Of course, the closer together the contacts, the more likelyit becomes that one or many nanowires will bridge the two electricalcontacts. Although described in terms of two electrical contacts, itwill be appreciated that the nanowires may be integrated with a widevariety of other elements, including multiple, e.g., more than twoelectrical contacts, other circuit elements or nanoscale structures orelements fabricated into or onto the substrate (see, e.g., commonlyowned U.S. Patent Publication No. 20040136866, published Jul. 15, 2004and incorporated herein by reference in its entirety for all purposes),structural elements, e.g., ridges, posts, walls, etc., optical elements,or virtually any other element that would be employed in a device thatcomprises nanowires.

Integration of the populations of nanowires on the wafer with electricalelements can either be concurrent with the immobilization process or itcan take place in a subsequent separate step. In particular, the wafermay be pre-patterned with electrical contacts, such that immobilizationof nanowires in selected regions corresponding to the positions of theelectrical contacts yields wires that bridge the contacts.Alternatively, the electrical contacts may be patterned over thenanowires (or at least portions of the nanowires) that are immobilizedon the wafer.

As shown in FIG. 2, a number of metallization patterns can be providedon a wafer. As shown in FIG. 2, a wafer 100 that has nanowirepopulations 124-138 deposited thereon is subjected to further processingto deposit electrical elements onto it. As noted above, however,electrical elements may be prepatterned onto the substrate. Ametallization pattern is established on the substrate using conventionalphotolithographic processes, e.g., photolithographically defining anddeveloping a pattern in a resist coating over the substrate, followed bye.g., evaporative deposition or sputtering of metal electrodes in theopen regions. As shown, a photomask 202 that corresponds to the desiredelectrode pattern 204 is used in the photolithographic definition of theelectrode patterns. As can be seen, the wafer based process producesmultiple discrete devices (each corresponding to a square 206 in thephotomask). Once the electrodes are laid down on the substrate, the maskis removed to yield a wafer with multiple integrated devices 208, whereeach device includes a discrete pattern of electrodes 210 that areconnected by nanowires 212 within each population of nanowires. Asshown, the electrode patterns are targeted to be overlaid upon theregions where the different populations of nanowires are deposited, tomaximize the potential of accurate integration of the two elements.

As shown, the electrical contact patterns also employ elements ofefficiency. In particular, as shown, a common electrode 222 is providedfor all device elements in a discrete device. In particular, while anumber of nanowire based devices are provided, e.g., the wire connectionbetween electrode 224 and 222 and between electrode 220 and 222, bothelements share the common electrode 222. This permits the easierconnection of the electrical contacts for all of the elements within agiven device with other portions of an overall system. In the case ofoperable devices, it will be readily appreciated that each device mayinclude a single wire connection or may include multiple connections,e.g., as shown in FIG. 2. Further, these connections may be of the sametype, e., wires of the same composition, or with surface treatments thatare the same, e.g., attached ligands, antibodies, nucleic acids, etc.(for sensor applications). Alternatively, each device may comprisemultiple different wire connections, e.g., wires that have a differentbasic composition or surface binding element. For a discussion of sensorbased applications of nanowire based devices, see, e.g., U.S. PatentPublication No. 20040136866, filed Jun. 27, 2002, and Cui, et al.,Science 293, 1289-1292 (2001), the full disclosures of which areincorporated herein by reference in their entirety for all purposes.

Again, as noted above, each metallization pattern 210 corresponds to anindividual device. As shown in the expanded view, each metallizationpattern 210 includes a series of patterned electrical contacts/traces,e.g., contacts/traces 220, 222 etc. The pairs of electrical contacts,e.g., contact 220 and 222, are spaced apart from each other by adistance that has a desired likelihood of having a desired number ofnanowires that span the two electrical contacts. In particular, if onehas a population of nanowires where the average length of nanowires isapproximately 10 μm, one can increase the likelihood of one or morewires spanning two electrical contacts by placing them less than 10 μmapart. The closer the electrical contacts are together, the more likelyit will be that at least one nanowire sill span the two contacts. Thus,in some cases, the electrical contacts will be less than 5 μm apart, andin other cases, less than 1 μm apart.

As will be readily appreciated, the methods described herein are notlimited to single sets of nanowires oriented in a single direction, butcan be used to provide substrates that include nanowires oriented in anydesired direction. Such differently oriented nanowires can be positionedat different locations on a substrate or substrate wafer, or they can beprovided in the same location, e.g., layered, so as to provide arrays ofcrossed, but electrically or structurally coupled nanowires.Alternatively, such layered structures may simply be used to provide athree dimensional architecture for a device, e.g., where each layer ofnanowires is separated by an intermediate layer.

For example, following immobilization and orientation of nanowires in afirst direction, the manifold element may be rotated and additionalnanowires immobilized and oriented on the surface of the substrate. Theresult is populations of nanowires positioned on a substrate that areoriented in a first direction that overlap with populations of nanowiresoriented in a different direction. Nanowires that are differentlyoriented may comprise the same composition or they may comprisedifferent compositions. For example, a first population of semiconductornanowires that is p doped may be positioned and oriented in a firstdirection. A second population may be positioned and orientedorthogonally to the first set and may include n-doping. The resultingp-n junction could then be used for a variety of different applications,including, e.g., optoelectronic applications, memory and logicapplications, and the like, e.g., as discussed in Published PCTApplication Nos. WO 02/17362, WO 02/48701, and 01/03208, the fulldisclosures of which are hereby incorporated herein by reference intheir entirety for all purposes.

Bidirectional or multidirectional orientation of nanowires isschematically illustrated in FIG. 4. As shown in FIG. 4, fluidcontaining nanowires is flowed in one direction over the substratesurface region 400 where wire deposition is desired. This results in thedeposition and immobilization of wires 402 in this region where thewires are substantially longitudinally oriented in the direction offlow. Fluid containing wires are then flowed over the same substrateregion 400 in a different direction, e.g., orthogonal to the originaldirection of flow and orientation. This results in deposition andimmobilization of wires 404 on the same substrate region oriented in thedifferent direction. This will result in a certain number of cross wirejunctions 406 being formed on the substrate surface. By then addingelectrical contacts 408, 410, 412 and 414, either before or after theaddition of wires, one can establish integrated electrical crossjunctions, which may include wires of like or different composition,e.g., doping.

In an alternative arrangement, and as discussed above, integratednanowire junctions may be created from a first nanowire that isfabricated onto the surface of the substrate by more conventional means,e.g., e-beam lithography or the like (see, Provisional Application No.60/392,205, previously incorporated herein by reference). Such“integrated circuits” may be readily combined with the free standingnanostructures in accordance with the present invention, as can otherintegrated circuit elements, e.g., elements that are fabricated into oronto the surface of the substrate prior to adding the nanostructureelement as described in the present invention. A second nanowire isinterfaced with the first using the flow based alignment methodsdescribed herein. By way of example, a thin nanowire element may befabricated from an SOI wafer where the relevant semiconductor isp-doped. An n-doped, free standing nanowire is then deposited across thefirst wire element to provide a p-n junction. A variety of differentjunction types may be created in this manner, including simple switches,etc. as described above.

As described above, the methods of the invention involve theimmobilization of nanowires onto a surface of a substrate. As usedherein, the term “immobilization” refers to the coupling of a nanowirewith the substrate surface, or chemical groups on that surface, suchthat the nanowire remains in position on the substrate surface despitebeing contacted by fluids, moving air or gas, etc. Immobilization may bepermanent or reversible. Typically, immobilization is the result ofchemical interaction between the surface or chemical groups on thesurface and the nanowires themselves, or chemical groups on thenanowires. Such interactions include, e.g., ionic interactions, covalentinteractions, hydrophobic or hydrophilic interactions, and electrostaticor magnetic interactions.

In the case of certain substrates and nanowires, the existing surfacesof the substrate and the nanowire may provide sufficient attractionbetween the substrate and the nanowire to provide immobilization. Forexample, where the nanowires and substrate surface are generallyhydrophilic, one could dispose the nanowires in a hydrophobic solvent tocontact them with the surface. As a result, the favored reaction wouldbe for the nanowires to associate with the substrate surface, resultingin immobilization. Alternatively, and in particularly preferred aspects,one may provide surface functionalization on one or both of thesubstrate and/or the nanowire that facilitates coupling between the two.

In functionalizing the substrate surface, where such functionalizationis necessary or desired, one may provide the ability to couple thenanowires to an entire substrate surface and rely upon the masking stepto selectively position nanowires, or one may also provide only selectedregions of functionalized surfaces to further selectively positionnanowires on the surface. In particular, one may functionalize onlyfirst selected regions on the substrate or wafer. Then, by masking offother selected regions that include portions of the functionalizedregions, one can further control how nanowires are coupled to thesurface of the substrate. FIG. 3 illustrates such a process using thesame manifold 102 for surface functionalization followed by nanowiredeposition. As shown, manifold 102 is placed over wafer 100, andappropriate functionalization chemistry is directed through the channelsof the manifold. This results in derivatized surface regions thatcorrespond to channels 104-118. The manifold is then rotated, e.g., 90°,and nanowire containing fluid is directed through the manifold. Becauseonly a portion of the surface which the nanowires contact isfunctionalized, the nanowires will be positioned and orientedsubstantially only in those regions. When the manifold is removed, ityields a substrate in which nanowires are only immobilized in selectedsmall regions, e.g., regions 324, 326, etc., that were bothfunctionalized, and exposed to nanowires. This provides for even moreprecise control over positioning of the wires. For example, one cantarget the functionalization to provide more precise localization ofnanowires in the desired regions, such as functionalizing the surface ofthe electrical contacts, but no other portions of the substrate surface,in order to assure that the wires immobilize only to the electricalcontacts, or in the regions where electrical contacts are to beprovided.

Functionalization of the surface may be carried out by a variety ofmeans. For example, as discussed above, functionalization may bedirected at an entire substrate surface, or it may be patterned orchemically templated onto the substrate surface. As used herein, theterm “chemical template” generally refers to the deposition and/orreaction upon a substrate surface of a template that is defined bychemical modification of that substrate surface. In particular, chemicalmodification of the surface in selected regions will make it more likelythat a nanostructure will localize to a particular region, e.g., adesired region, than in another region, e.g., an undesired region.Chemical modification can be positive modification, e.g., the region ofmodification provides enhanced affinity of the nanostructure to thesubstrate, or it can be negative, e.g., it provides a repulsing effectsuch that nanostructures are unlikely to localize in the particularregion. Chemical modifications include any of a variety of differentsurface treatments that are well known in the art of surface chemistry,including coupling of active groups that are capable of bonding to orotherwise associating with the nanostructures or with chemical groupsdisposed upon those nanostructures. The functional chemical groupspresented may interact with the nanostructures via affinityinteractions, ionic interactions, hydrophobic and/or hydrophilicinteractions.

As noted above, the substrate may comprise a bare substrate or mayinclude other elements, including other device elements and/or othernanostructures, e.g., electrodes, nanowires, circuit elements, etc. Thechemical moieties may be an element of the substrate, or they may becoupled, either directly or through a linker molecule, or otherwiseprovided upon the surface of the substrate in the desired pattern or atthe desired locations or regions of the substrate's surface.

One arrangement for capturing nanostructures involves forming surfacesthat comprise regions that selectively attract nanostructures. Forexample, —NH₂ moieties can be presented in a particular pattern at asurface, and that pattern will attract nanowires or nanotubes havingsurface functionality attractive to amines. This same surfacefunctionality is also optionally used to generate an ionic attractionwhereby surface amines are exposed to an acidic environment resulting ina predominantly positively charged surface, e.g., populated with NH₃ ⁺groups that can attract negatively charged nanostructure surfaces orrepel like charged materials. Surfaces can be patterned using knowntechniques such as electron-beam patterning, soft-lithography, or thelike. See also, International Patent Publication No. WO 96/29629,published Jul. 26, 1996, and U.S. Pat. No. 5,512,131, issued Apr. 30,1996.

Templates may have inherent affinity toward nanostructures, or may beprovided such that the affinity can be accentuated. For example, inpreferred aspects, chemical templates are generated by providingprotected functional groups over the surface of the substrate upon whichthe nanostructures are going to be provided. Desired portions or regionsof the substrate surface are then deprotected, e.g., the protectinggroups are removed or transformed, to yield an active site to whichnanostructures will bind or otherwise be localized. As alluded to above,the regions of the substrate that are deprotected may comprise a basicsubstrate surface, e.g., a SiO₂ substrate, or they may include otherelements, including functional elements, on the surface of a basicsubstrate. For example, a chemical template may define regions only onthe surfaces of electrical contacts that are present on a basicsubstrate, and not elsewhere on the substrate surface, so as to increasethe likelihood that nanostructures, e.g., nanowire(s), will be coupledto those electrodes, and nowhere else.

In a first aspect, photodeprotection is used to provide a chemicaltemplate for directed positioning of nanostructures. In particular, asubstrate to which nanostructures are to be coupled, bound or otherwiseassociated, is treated to provide a layer of chemical moieties thatinclude active functional chemical groups that would interact, e.g.,bind, to a nanostructure, but for the presence of a protecting groupcoupled to that active group. In accordance with this aspect of theinvention, the protecting group provided on the active group is aphotolabile protecting group. Specifically, in order to activate themolecules on the surface of the substrate, one must expose thephotolabile protecting group to light of a desired wavelength, to removethe protecting group and yield the active chemical moiety with which ananostructure may interact/bind. By selectively exposing desired regionsof the substrate, one can selectively activate a pattern of regions onthat surface and drive the selective positioning of nanostructuresaccordingly. Such selective exposure can be carried out using standardphotolithographic techniques, e.g., mask-based exposure, laser writing,e-beam lithography, etc. that are very well known in the art.

A wide variety of photolabile protecting groups and their associatedlinkage chemistries, e.g., that couple other elements to surfaces, onceactivated, are well known in the art, and have been used extensively inthe directed positioning of chemical elements on substrate surfaces. Byway of example, in at least one aspect of the invention, amino orhydroxyl terminated organosilane linker molecules are provided coupledto the substrate surface. The linker group is capped by a protectinggroup that is cleaved or rendered cleavable upon exposure to light of adesired wavelength. Examples of known photolabile protecting groupsinclude nitroveratryloxycarbonyl protecting groups, such as NVOC andMeNVOC, as well as nitropiperonyloxycarbonyl protecting groups, such asNPOC and MeNPOC, and others, e.g., PyMOC. The use of these protectinggroups and others in photolithographic activation of surfaces isdescribed in, e.g., U.S. Pat. Nos. 5,489,678 and 6,147,205, the completedisclosures of which are hereby incorporated herein by reference intheir entirety for all purposes.

In alternative arrangements, functional groups may be in an ionizableform, such that under certain conditions, e.g., low or high pH, thefunctional group has substantial affinity for the nanostructure, e.g., astrong positive or negative charge, while under different environmentalconditions, the affinity is substantially lower, or is even negative.

In certain aspects, the organosilane polymer is terminated with ahydrophilic moiety. In such cases, the natural affinity of the nanowirecomponents, e.g., for semiconductor nanowires, to the hydrophilic moietyprovides the selectivity of binding in the overall positioning process.Examples of linkers including such hydrophilic terminators include,e.g., (hydroxy/amino) propyltriethoxy silane derivatives andpoly(hydroxy/amino)propyltriethoxysilane derivatives. To take advantageof an increase in hydrophilicity, protecting groups for this particularembodiment would be generally hydrophobic in nature. Cleavage would thenyield an increase in hydrophilicity at the desired location. Use ofrelatively hydrophilic and hydrophobic surface templates has beendescribed for use in, e.g., in situ chemical synthesis for biochemicalmicroarrays (see, e.g., U.S. Pat. No. 5,985,551, to Brennan et al.).

In this case, following exposure of the desired regions to expose thehydrophilic moiety in the desired regions for coupling nanostructures, afluidic suspension of nanostructures is flowed over or otherwisecontacted with the entire substrate. The affinity of the nanostructures,e.g., semiconductor nanostructures, for the hydrophilic regions providesfor the preferential localization of the nanowires in the deprotectedregions. Such regions may include regions between and includingelectrical contacts, or between electrical contact(s) and othernanostructures, or regions on substrates where subsequent additionalelements will be patterned to contact the nanostructures so deposited.

While described in terms of hydrophilic affinity, it will be appreciatedthat a variety of different interactions may be exploited in theattraction and/or repulsion of nanostructures within the selectedpattern, including hydrophobic interactions, e.g., in regions where itis not desired to have binding, combined hydrophobic/hydrophilicinteractions, specific molecular affinity interactions, e.g.,antibody:antigen, aviden:biotin, nucleic acid hybridization, or ionicinteractions.

In the cases of affinity interactions (and even in other non-affinitycases, where higher efficiency coupling is desired), it may be necessaryor desirable to provide a functional group on the nanowire to permit thedesired interaction between the nanowire and the substrate, e.g., acomplementary molecule to that disposed on the substrate surface. Insuch cases, and particularly with reference to semiconductor nanowires,e.g., silicon nanowires, derivatization of the nanowire may be carriedout according to methods used to derivatize the substrate surface oflike make-up. For example, nanowires may be silanized for attachment tothe substrate surface, either directly or through an intermediate group.In particular, in the same fashion described for derivatizing thesurface of the substrate, supra, one could derivatize the nanowireitself. Such derivatization could include addition of affinitymolecules, hydrophilic or hydrophobic groups, ionic groups, etc. asdesired to improve efficiency of the positioning process. In addition,functionalization of the nanowire provides facility in adding additionalcomponents to the nanowire element, i.e., for attachment of biomoleculesfor biosensor applications (see, e.g., U.S. Patent Publication No.20040136866, previously incorporated herein). Thus, in certain casesboth the nanowire and substrate may be derivatized to facilitate bindingand improve efficiency of the positioning process.

Additionally, or alternatively to the photo-deprotection processdescribed above, patterning of a surface for nanostructure attachmentmay utilize chemical deprotection methods, e.g., acid deprotection. Aciddeprotection generally utilizes acid labile protecting groups in placeof the photolabile protecting groups described above. Directed exposureof regions to acid may be accomplished through mechanically directedmeans, e.g., channeling acid to the desired regions while preventing theacid from reaching other regions. Such mechanical means can include theuse of channel blocks mated with the substrate, template masks. However,such methods often yield low resolution due to the difficulty in sealingthe channel block to the substrate surface. Other mechanical methodsinclude ink jet printing methods, microcontact printing methods, etc.

For modification of electrodes to increase affinity, one could providethe patterned electrodes with a thin gold layer as the chemical moietyto increase affinity, and treat the nanostructures with thiol terminatedorganosilanes. The thiolated nanostructure would then bindpreferentially to the gold electrode.

Alternatively, photoresist layers are used to generate a mechanicalstencil or mask for subsequent acid exposure. In particular, a resist iscoated on a substrate that includes acid labile protecting group cappingthe functional groups. The resist is exposed and developed, e.g.,removed, in the desired regions and the exposed portions of thesubstrate are subjected to acid deprotection while the unexposed regionsare not. In still more preferred aspects, an acid generating resist isused, where exposure of the resist in the desired locations results ingeneration of an acid which in turn deprotects the functional groups inthose desired locations. This latter method has an added advantage ofreducing the number of required process steps, in that the exposure andacid deprotection steps are concurrent.

Examples of both acid labile protecting groups and acid generatingphotoresists are well known in the art and include, e.g., DMT(dimethoxytrityl) and its derivatives, as well as acid generating resistlayers that are generally commercially available.

Although described primarily in terms of photolithographic patterningtechniques, it will be appreciated that other patterning techniques,such as microcontact printing techniques, laser ablative techniques(either direct or in conjunction with a resist layer, i.e., PMMA), andthe like may be employed in the patterning steps. Such methods aregenerally well known in the art and are described in, e.g., U.S. Pat.Nos. 6,180,239 to Whitesides et al, and 5,500,071 to Swedberg et al.

For other applications, different protecting group types may beemployed, e.g., allyloxycarbonyl (ALLOC), fluorenylmethoxycarbonyl(FMOC),—NH-FMOC groups, t-butyl esters, t-butyl ethers, and the like.Various exemplary protecting groups are described in, for example,Atherton et al., (1989) Solid Phase Peptide Synthesis, IRL Press, andGreene, et al. (1991) Protective Groups In Organic Chemistry, 2nd Ed.,John Wiley & Sons, New York, N.Y.

For the steps of selectively patterning nanowires onto the surface,through the use of a masking element, while in preferred aspects, themasking element or manifold is provided as a separate element or layerthat is removably placed against the substrate surface, it will beappreciated that this element may be fabricated onto the surface of thesubstrate, e.g., in the same fashion as described with reference tochemical templating of the substrate surface. Further, this maskingelement may remain permanently on the surface of the substrate, or itmay be removed through subsequent processing of the substrate. Inparticular, a manifold element may be fabricated onto a substrate orsubstrate wafer surface by coating a layer of material, e.g., apolymeric resist layer on the substrate. In preferred aspects, polymericresists, and preferably photoresists are spin coated onto wafersurfaces. As described above, the substrate may include electricalcontacts pre-patterned onto the surface of the wafer. Similarly, thesurface may be pre-functionalized in first selected regions for couplingto nanowires, as described above.

Following coating of the layer that is to form the manifold or maskinglayer onto the substrate surface, passages are defined through thatlayer, typically as troughs, trenches or fluid channels in the layer toprovide fluid access to the surface of the substrate. By using aphotoresist as the masking layer, one can simply use the recommendedexposure and development processes for the resist used to define thepassages. Once the masking layer is defined on the surface of thesubstrate, fluid containing the nanowires is flowed over the substrateand/or specifically through the defined channels or troughs in thedesired direction in order to allow the nanowires to be immobilized onthe substrate surface in the desired orientation. As will beappreciated, enclosed or sealed channels are generally preferred forflowing nanowires in a desired direction. As such, in preferred aspects,an additional cover layer is optionally and preferably disposed over themasking layer to provide flow channels, like with a manifold. Whileeither positive or negative resists may generally be employed inaccordance with the invention, for use in templating, it will begenerally desirable to use positive photoresists, as they are less proneto swelling in aqueous solutions or in ethanol, which is often employedas the fluid carrier for nanostructures, e.g., nanowires. Positiveresists additionally provide better adhesion to many substrate layertypes, e.g., silicon, and provide greater mechanical strength. Thisallows for more precise templating or masking in the positioning ofnanowires. As noted, this layer may be removed in subsequent steps or itmay be allowed to remain on the overall device to provide additionalstructural features, e.g., insulation, moisture barriers, fluidicconduits, etc. A wide variety of different positive and negative resistsare generally commercially available, e.g., from DuPont, i.e., DuPont8000 series resists.

Once the nanowires are deposited, the masking layer may be removed fromthe substrate to allow for additional processing. Alternatively, wherevarious integration elements are prepositioned on the wafer orsubstrate, it may not be necessary to remove the masking layer. In fact,in some cases, the masking layer may provide a barrier or insulationbetween electrical or fluidic elements of a device. In the case of suchmasking layers, it will be appreciated that any of a variety of resistlayers are readily commercially available for this process, including,e.g., polyimide or PMMA based resists, or any of a variety of resiststhat are generally commercially available.

One of the advantages of the invention is its applicability tomanufacturing on a commercial scale. In accordance with this advantage,FIG. 6 schematically illustrates an overall system that may be used incommercial scale alignment and deposition of nanowires onto substratesand subsequent device integration. As shown, the system 600 includes asource of nanowire containing fluid 602. A pump 604 delivers the fluidto the inlet port 606 of a deposition module 608 which would typicallyinclude a base substrate 610 onto which nanowires are to be deposited,and a manifold element 612 which directs the flowing nanowires toselected regions on the surface of the substrate to which the manifoldis mated. Following contact with the substrate, the fluid exits themanifold 612 through outlet port 614, where the fluid and the nanowiresstill contained therein are reclaimed, e.g., in a reclamation vessel(not shown) or recycled back into source 602 (as shown). Typically, themodule 606 may be multiplexed either in parallel, e.g., as shown bymodule 616, or in series, as shown by module 618, provided there is asufficient concentration of nanowires in the fluid, in order to increasethe throughput of the deposition process.

EXAMPLES Example 1 Controlled Positioning and Flow Alignment ofNanowires on a Wafer Scale

Nanowires were positioned and oriented on a substrate and subsequentlyintegrated with electrical connections in accordance with the invention.

Silicon nanowires used for flow alignment were synthesized by goldcluster mediated chemical vapor deposition methods, and the resultingnanowires were suspended in ethanol solution via ultrasonication.

A poly(dimethylsiloxane) (PDMS) stamp, e.g., as shown in FIG. 1, wasfabricated by photolithography. The PDMS stamp had a three-inchdiameter, with eight parallel channels spaced 7 mm apart with eachchannel having a width of 500 μm, and a depth of ˜200 μm.

A silicon substrate wafer (surface oxidized, 600 nm oxide) to be used inflow assembly was functionalized with an NH₂-terminated self-assembledmonolayer (SAM) by immersion in a 1 mM chloroform solution of3-aminopropyltriethoxysilane (APTES) for 30 min, followed by heating at110° C. for 10 min.

Alignment of nanowires was performed by conforming the PDMS stamp to thefunctionalized surface of the silicon substrate. The ethanol solution ofnanowires was flowed into the parallel channels of the stamp through oneport (inlet) and out through the other port. Flow was either induced bygravity, e.g., tilting the substrate to ˜40°, or through application ofa positive pressure to the inlet port.

Once the nanowire solution was delivered through the stamp, the PDMSstamp was removed, and the surface of the substrate wafer was coatedwith a photoresist. FIG. 7 shows an SEM image of flow aligned nanowiresimmobilized on a substrate. As can be seen, a substantial majority ofthe nanowires are substantially longitudinally oriented in a singledirection in the direction of flow during the deposition process.

By superimposing virtual or postulated pairs of electrical contacts overthe oriented nanowires, one can estimate the efficacy of the fabricationprocess in producing functioning nanowire containing devices, e.g.,devices in which one or more nanowires connects a pair of electricalcontacts. A virtual electrical contact pattern overlaid on the orientednanowires is shown in FIG. 8A. Examination of overlay in FIG. 8A allowsfor an estimate of 0, 1, 2 and 3 wire connections between electrodepairs. FIG. 8B provides a plot of the distribution of connections in theestimated devices of FIG. 8A. As can be seen, functional device yield,e.g., percentage of devices showing one or more connection between apair of electrical contacts, is approximately 75%.

Photolithography was used to selectively remove portions of thephotoresist, and electron-beam evaporation was performed to define themetal contacts on to the nanowires in selected locations on thesubstrate surface. The pattern of electrodes was as shown in FIG. 1.FIG. 9 illustrates the overall device, as well as expanded views of theelectrodes and nanowire connections between electrode pairs. Electrodepairs are made up between the common central electrode and each of theseparate orthogonally oriented electrodes. Each connected electrodepair, e.g., connection between the central electrode and an orthogonalelectrode, represents an operation element of a nanowire based device.

Although described in considerable detail above, it will be appreciatedthat various modifications may be made to the above-described invention,while still practicing the invention as it is delineated in the appendedclaims. All publications and patent documents cited herein are herebyincorporated herein by reference in their entirety for all purposes tothe same extent as if each such document was individually incorporatedherein.

1. A method of making a nanowire based device, comprising: depositing aplurality of nanowires on at least a first region of a surface of asubstrate; and forming at least first and second electrical contacts onthe first region of the surface of the substrate such that at leastfirst and second nanowires of the plurality of nanowires are positionedin contact with both the first and second electrical contacts, whereinthe nanowires are made from a material selected from the groupcomprising Si, Ge, Sn, Se, Te, P, Si—C, Si—Ge, Si—Sn, Ge—Sn, SiC,AlN/AlP/AlAs/AlSb, GaN/GaP/GaAs/GaSb, InN/InP/InAs/InSb,AlN/AlP/AlAs/AlSb, GaN/GaP/GaAs/GaSb, InN/InP/InAs/InSb,ZnO/ZnS/ZnSe/ZnTe, CdS/CdSe/CdTe, HgS/HgSe/HgTe, BeS/BeSe/BeTe/MgS/MgSe,GeS, GeSe, GeTe, SnS, SnSe, SnTe, PbO, PbS, PbSe, PbTe, CuF, CuCl, CuBr,CuI, AgF, AgCl, AgBr, AgI, BeSiN2, CaCN2, ZnGeP2, CdSnAs2, ZnSnSb2,CuGeP3, CuSi2P3, (Cu, Ag)(Al, Ga, In, Tl, Fe)(S, Se, Te)2, Si3N4, Ge3N4,Al2O3, (Al, Ga, In)2(S, Se, Te)3, or Al2CO or alloys thereof, whereinthe first and second electrical contacts are separated from each otheron the first surface of the substrate by a distance that is less than50% of an average length of the first and second nanowires.
 2. Themethod of claim 1, wherein the plurality of nanowires are orientedsubstantially longitudinally in a first direction on the first region ofthe surface of the substrate.
 3. The method of claim 1, wherein theplurality of nanowires are randomly oriented.
 4. The method of claim 1,wherein the first and second electrical contacts are separated from eachother by a distance that is less than 10 μm.
 5. The method of claim 1,wherein the first and second electrical contacts are separated from eachother by a distance that is less than 5 μm.
 6. The method of claim 1,wherein said depositing comprises flowing the plurality of nanowires ina fluid containing the nanowires over the surface of the substrate, andpermitting the nanowires in the fluid to become immobilized onto thesurface.
 7. The method of claim 6, further comprising providing thefirst surface of the substrate as a functionalized first surface that iscapable of binding the nanowires from the fluid.
 8. The method of claim7, wherein the step of providing the first surface of the substrate as afunctionalized first surface comprises providing functional groups ononly a portion of the first surface.
 9. The method of claim 8, whereinthe functional groups comprise protectable or deprotectable functionalgroups.
 10. The method of claim 1, further comprising immobilizing saidplurality of nanowires in said first region of the surface of thesubstrate via ionic interaction with said surface.
 11. The method ofclaim 1, further comprising immobilizing said plurality of nanowires insaid first region of the surface of the substrate via covalentinteraction with said surface.
 12. The method of claim 1, furthercomprising immobilizing said plurality of nanowires in said first regionof the surface of the substrate via hydrophobic or hydrophilicinteraction with said surface.
 13. The method of claim 1, furthercomprising immobilizing said plurality of nanowires in said first regionof the surface of the substrate via electrostatic interaction with saidsurface.
 14. The method of claim 1, further comprising immobilizing saidplurality of nanowires in said first region of the surface of thesubstrate via magnetic interaction with said surface.
 15. The method ofclaim 1, wherein the first and second electrical contacts are formed onthe surface of the substrate before depositing the plurality ofnanowires on the surface.
 16. The method of claim 1, wherein the firstand second electrical contacts are formed on the surface of thesubstrate after the plurality of nanowires have been deposited on thesurface.
 17. The method of claim 1, wherein more than two of saidplurality of nanowires are positioned in contact with both the first andsecond electrical contacts.
 18. The method of claim 1, wherein theplurality of nanowires are made from silicon.
 19. The method of claim 1,wherein the plurality of nanowires are made from germanium.